Experimental Study on the Inhibition Effect of the Inhibitor on Coal Spontaneous Combustion Under Critical Temperature.

At present, related research on inhibitors has been gradually improved, but there is still a lack of research on the inhibition characteristics at specific release temperatures and the mechanism of inhibiting coal spontaneous combustion. Based on this, In this study, the inhibition characteristics of adding inhibitor to coal under critical temperature (R70) are studied in depth. In the experiment, lignite was selected as the research object, and four different types of inhibitors, MgCl2, triphenyl phosphite (TPPI), Phytic acid (PA), and melatonin, were applied to coal samples at room temperature and 70 °C, respectively. The temperature-programmed-gas chromatography test and Fourier infrared spectroscopy experiment were carried out, and the oxidation kinetic parameters were calculated to study the oxidation characteristics and micromechanism of the coal samples in the process of spontaneous combustion. The experimental results show that the amount of CO gas release and oxygen consumption rate are lower, and the inhibition rate and apparent activation energy are higher when the inhibitor is added under R70 than at room temperature. Under R70, the content of oxygen-containing functional group -COOH with higher activity of inhibitor is reduced, the generation of active sites is inhibited, the concentration of active center is reduced, the path of mutual transformation between active sites and oxygen-containing functional groups is blocked, and the active groups are promoted to form a relatively stable inert oxygen-containing ether bond, which reduces the spontaneous combustion tendency of coal.

The interaction between particles and vascular endothelium in blood flow.

Particle-based drug delivery systems have shown promising application potential to treat human diseases; however, an incomplete understanding of their interactions with vascular endothelium in blood flow prevents their inclusion into mainstream clinical applications. The flow performance of nano/micro-sized particles in the blood are disturbed by many external/internal factors, including blood constituents, particle properties, and endothelium bioactivities, affecting the fate of particles in vivo and therapeutic effects for diseases. This review highlights how the blood constituents, hemodynamic environment and particle properties influence the interactions and particle activities in vivo. Moreover, we briefly summarized the structure and functions of endothelium and simulated devices for studying particle performance under blood flow conditions. Finally, based on particle-endothelium interactions, we propose future opportunities for novel therapeutic strategies and provide solutions to challenges in particle delivery systems for accelerating their clinical translation. This review helps provoke an increasing in-depth understanding of particle-endothelium interactions and inspires more strategies that may benefit the development of particle medicine.

Self-assembly of CuAuTA nanozymes for intelligent detection of ginkgolic acids.

Toxic ginkgolic acids (GAs) are a challenge for Ginkgo biloba-related food. Although a detection method for GAs is available, bulky instruments limit the field testing of GAs. Herein, by assembling gold nanoclusters with copper tannic acid (CuTA), CuAuTA nanocomposites were designed as peroxidase mimics for the colorimetric determination of GAs. Compared with single CuTA, the obtained CuAuTA nanocomposites possessed enhanced peroxidase-like properties. Based on the inhibitory effect of GAs for the catalytic activity of CuAuTA nanozymes, CuAuTA could be utilized for the colorimetric sensing of GAs with a low limit of quantitation of 0.17 µg mL-1. Using a smartphone and the ImageJ software in conjunction, a nanozyme-based intelligent detection platform was developed with a detection limit of 0.86 µg mL-1. This sensing system exhibited good selectivity against other potential interferents. Experimental data demonstrated that GAs might bind to the surface of CuAuTA, blocking the catalytically active sites and resulting in decreased catalytic activity. Our CuAuTA nanozyme-based system could also be applied to detect real ginkgo nut and ginkgo powder samples with recoveries of 93.12-111.6% and relative standard deviations less than 0.3%. Our work may offer a feasible strategy for the determination of GAs and expand the application of nanozymes in food safety detection.

Lipoprotein-mimicking nanotherapeutics reconstituted with chenodeoxycholic acid modified protein for efficient tumor targeting.

Lipoprotein-derived nanotherapeutics based on endogenous lipid supramolecules have been regarded as an exceptional and promising approach for anti-tumor drug delivery. However, certain challenges associated with the main component apolipoprotein, such as limited availability, high cost, and insufficient specificity of relevant receptor expression, pose significant barriers to its widespread development and application. The objective of this study is to fabricate lipoprotein-mimicking nanocomposites, denoted as CA-P-rHDL by substituting apolipoprotein with chenodeoxycholic acid (CA) modified bovine serum albumin (BSA), and subsequently assess their tumor-targeting capability and anti-tumor efficacy. CA modified BSA (CA-BSA) was successfully synthesized and characterized by quantifying the degree of protein substitution. Subsequently, a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) mimicking the hydrophobic core of natural lipoproteins was attached with CA-BSA to form a lipoprotein-mimic nanocomplex termed as CA-rHDL. CA-rHDL was endowed with lipoprotein-like structures, favorable particle size, zeta potential and excellent paclitaxel encapsulation (termed as CA-P-rHDL). The internalization of CA-rHDL by HepG2 cells exhibited significantly superior efficiency, with a notably higher in HepG2 cells compared to LO2 cells. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that CA-rHDL evaded lysosomal degradation and was evenly distributed throughout the cells. CCK-8 studies demonstrated that CA-P-rHDL exhibited significantly superior inhibition of tumor cells growth compared to other paclitaxel formulations in vitro. Moreover, in vivo imaging observation in H22 tumor-bearing mouse models exhibited a rapid and consistent accumulation of CA-rHDL within tumors, while CA-P-rHDL demonstrated remarkable efficacy against cancer in these mice. These exceptional capabilities of CA-P-rHDL can be attributed to the synergistic targeting effect facilitated by the combination of CA and BSA, rendering it a promising and versatile drug delivery system for targeted anticancer therapy. Consequently, CA-P-rHDL established a highly potential platform for simulating the reconstitution of supramolecular nanovehicles.

Adaptability of sulfur-disproportionating bacteria for mine water remediation under the pressures of heavy metal ions and high sulfate content.

Biological sulfide production processes mediated by sulfate/sulfur reduction have gained attention for metal removal from industrial wastewater (e.g., mine water (MW) and metallurgical wastewater) via forming insoluble metal sulfides. However, these processes often necessitate the addition of external organic compounds as electron donors, which poses a constraint on the broad application of this technology. A recent proof of concept study reported that microbial sulfur disproportionation (SD) produced sulfide with no demand for organics, which could achieve more cost-benefit MW treatment against the above-mentioned processes. However, the resistance of SD bioprocess to different metals and high sulfate content in MW remains mysterious, which may substantially affect the practical applicability of such process. In this study, the sulfur-disproportionating bacteria (SDB)-dominated consortium was enriched from a previously established SD-driven bioreactor, in which Dissulfurimicrobium sp. with a relative abundance of 39.9 % was the predominated SDB. When exposed to the real pretreated acidic MW after the pretreatment process of pH amelioration, the sulfur-disproportionating activity remained active, and metals were effectively removed from the MW. Metal tolerance assays further demonstrated that the consortium had a good tolerance to different metal ions (i.e., Pb2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Zn2+), especially for Mn2+ with a concentration of approximately 20 mg/L. It suggested the robustness of Dissulfurimicrobium sp. likely due to the presence of genes encoding for the enzymes associated with metal(loid) resistance/uptake. Additionally, although high sulfate content resulted in a slight inhibition on the sulfur-disproportionating activity, the consortium still achieved sulfide production rates of 27.3 mg S/g VSS-d on average under an environmentally relevant sulfate level (i.e., 1100 mg S/L), which is comparable to those reported in sulfate reduction. Taken together, these findings imply that SDB could ensure sustainable MW treatment in a more cost-effective and organic-free way.

Experimental study on the effect of room temperature pre-oxidized time on spontaneous combustion characteristics of coal.

The presence of different types of coal at room temperature can lead to self-heating of coal, potentially resulting in spontaneous combustion. To investigate the effect of ambient temperature pre-oxidation (BL) time on the self-combustion characteristics of different coal types, synchronous thermal analysis (STA) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) experiments were conducted. The results of the synchronous thermal analysis experiments indicate that ambient temperature pre-oxidation for 3 months (BL3), BL6, and BL9 coals exhibit faster oxidation reactions compared to the original coal, while BL12 coal shows slower oxidation than the original coal. Among these, BL9 coal demonstrates the most significant changes in oxidation reaction characteristics, with the fastest oxidation reaction time being 35.36 min, which is 1.38 min faster than the original coal. To support this observation, a comparison was made between the relative content of active functional groups in the original coal and BL coal. The study revealed that the BL process affects the relative content of hydroxyl groups, aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, and oxygen-containing functional groups, thereby influencing the coal-oxygen reaction process. This suggests that pre-oxidized coal, compared to the original coal, has a larger pore structure, which plays a dominant role in promoting coal self-combustion in the first 9 months of the BL process. As BL time continues to increase, the continuous reaction of active functional groups at room temperature leads to excessive consumption, resulting in a more significant role in inhibiting coal self-combustion. The research results provide valuable insights for predicting the spontaneous combustion risk of oxidized coal.

Generation of whole-porcine neutralizing antibodies of an alphacoronavirus by single B cell antibody technology.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an alphacoronavirus that causes severe morbidity and mortality in piglets, resulting in substantial economic losses to the swine industry. While vaccination is currently the most effective preventive measure, existing vaccines fail to provide complete and reliable protection against PEDV infection. Consequently, there is a need to explore alternative or complementary strategies to address this issue. In this study, we utilized single B cell antibody technology to obtain a potent neutralizing antibody, C62, which specifically targets the receptor binding domain S1B of the PEDV-S1 protein. C62 exhibited potent neutralizing activity against PEDV and inhibited viral attachment to the cell surface in vitro. Furthermore, the effectiveness of C62 in mitigating PEDV infection was demonstrated in vivo, as evidenced by the delayed onset of diarrhea and reduced mortality rates observed in piglets following oral administration of C62. Our study provides an alternative approach for controlling PEDV infection. Meanwhile, C62 holds promise as a therapeutic biological agent to complement existing vaccines. More importantly, our study forms a solid foundation for the development of whole-porcine neutralizing antibodies against other swine coronaviruses, thus contributing to the overall improvement of swine health.

Current research trends of nanomedicines.

Owing to the inherent shortcomings of traditional therapeutic drugs in terms of inadequate therapeutic efficacy and toxicity in clinical treatment, nanomedicine designs have received widespread attention with significantly improved efficacy and reduced non-target side effects. Nanomedicines hold tremendous theranostic potential for treating, monitoring, diagnosing, and controlling various diseases and are attracting an unfathomable amount of input of research resources. Against the backdrop of an exponentially growing number of publications, it is imperative to help the audience get a panorama image of the research activities in the field of nanomedicines. Herein, this review elaborates on the development trends of nanomedicines, emerging nanocarriers, in vivo fate and safety of nanomedicines, and their extensive applications. Moreover, the potential challenges and the obstacles hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines are also discussed. The elaboration on various aspects of the research trends of nanomedicines may help enlighten the readers and set the route for future endeavors.

PLK3 facilitates replication of swine influenza virus by phosphorylating viral NP protein.

Swine H1N1/2009 influenza is a highly infectious respiratory disease in pigs, which poses a great threat to pig production and human health. In this study, we investigated the global expression profiling of swine-encoded genes in response to swine H1N1/2009 influenza A virus (SIV-H1N1/2009) in newborn pig trachea (NPTr) cells. In total, 166 genes were found to be differentially expressed (DE) according to the gene microarray. After analyzing the DE genes which might affect the SIV-H1N1/2009 replication, we focused on polo-like kinase 3 (PLK3). PLK3 is a member of the PLK family, which is a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase in eukaryotes and well known for its role in the regulation of cell cycle and cell division. We validated that the expression of PLK3 was upregulated after SIV-H1N1/2009 infection. Additionally, PLK3 was found to interact with viral nucleoprotein (NP), significantly increased NP phosphorylation and oligomerization, and promoted viral ribonucleoprotein assembly and replication. Furthermore, we identified serine 482 (S482) as the phosphorylated residue on NP by PLK3. The phosphorylation of S482 regulated NP oligomerization, viral polymerase activity and growth. Our findings provide further insights for understanding the replication of influenza A virus.

Protein arginine methyltransferase 5 mediates arginine symmetric dimethylation of influenza A virus PB2 and supports viral replication.

Influenza A virus (IAV) relies on intricate and highly coordinated associations with host factors for efficient replication and transmission. Characterization of such factors holds great significance for development of anti-IAV drugs. Our study identified protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) as a novel host factor indispensable for IAV replication. Silencing PRMT5 resulted in drastic repression of IAV replication. Our findings revealed that PRMT5 interacts with each protein component of viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) and promotes arginine symmetric dimethylation of polymerase basic 2 (PB2). Overexpression of PRMT5 enhanced viral polymerase activity in a dose-dependent manner, emphasizing its role in genome transcription and replication of IAV. Moreover, analysis of PB2 protein sequences across various subtypes of IAVs demonstrated the high conservation of potential RG motifs recognized by PRMT5. Overall, our study suggests that PRMT5 supports IAV replication by facilitating viral polymerase activity by interacting with PB2 and promoting its arginine symmetric dimethylation. This study deepens our understanding of how IAV manipulates host factors to facilitate its replication and highlights the great potential of PRMT5 to serve as an anti-IAV therapeutic target.

Prohibitin1 facilitates viral replication by impairing the RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathway.

IMPORTANCE: Type I interferon (IFN-I), produced by the innate immune system, plays an essential role in host antiviral responses. Proper regulation of IFN-I production is required for the host to balance immune responses and prevent superfluous inflammation. IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and subsequent sensors are activated by RNA virus infection to induce IFN-I production. Therefore, proper regulation of IRF3 serves as an important way to control innate immunity and viral replication. Here, we first identified Prohibitin1 (PHB1) as a negative regulator of host IFN-I innate immune responses. Mechanistically, PHB1 inhibited the nucleus import of IRF3 by impairing its binding with importin subunit alpha-1 and importin subunit alpha-5. Our study demonstrates the mechanism by which PHB1 facilitates the replication of multiple RNA viruses and provides insights into the negative regulation of host immune responses.

CuCeTA nanoflowers as an efficient peroxidase candidate for direct colorimetric detection of glyphosate.

Conventional nanozyme-based pesticide detection often requires the assistance of acetylcholinesterase. In this work, a CuCeTA nanozyme was successfully designed for the direct colorimetric detection of glyphosate. Direct detection can effectively avoid the problems caused by cascading with natural enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase. By assembling tannic acid, copper sulfate pentahydrate and cerium(III) nitrate hexahydrate, CuCeTA nanoflowers were prepared. The obtained CuCeTA possessed excellent peroxidase-like activity that could catalyze the oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to blue oxidized TMB in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. Glyphosate could effectively inhibit the peroxidase-like activity of CuCeTA while other pesticides (fenthion, chlorpyrifos, profenofos, phosmet, bromoxynil and dichlorophen) did not show significant inhibitory effects on the catalytic activity of CuCeTA. In this way, CuCeTA could be used for the colorimetric detection of glyphosate with a low detection limit of 0.025 ppm. Combined with a smartphone and imageJ software, a glyphosate test paper was designed with a detection limit of 3.09 ppm. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrated that glyphosate and CuCeTA might be bound by coordination, which could affect the catalytic activity of CuCeTA. Our CuCeTA-based nanozyme system exhibited unique selectivity and sensitivity for glyphosate detection and this work may provide a new strategy for rapid and convenient detection of pesticides.

CeO2-Based Porous Carbonaceous Frameworks as Antioxidant Nanozymes for Scavenging Reactive Oxygen Species and Adsorbing Benzo[a]pyrene.

Barbecue smoke, car exhaust, cigarette smoke, and other waste gases contain toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Herein, CeO2-based porous carbonaceous frameworks (CeO2 PCFs) were explored as antioxidant nanozymes to scavenge ROS and absorb benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P). Using cerium-based frameworks as the precursors, CeO2 PCFs were constructed by high-temperature calcination. Due to excellent superoxide dismutase-like and catalase-like activity, CeO2 PCFs could effectively eliminate superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical, and hydrogen peroxide. The 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) free radical scavenging assay had substantiated free radical scavenging ability of CeO2 PCFs. In addition, with a large surface area and porous structure, CeO2 PCFs could adsorb B[a]P efficiently. The designed CeO2 PCFs may provide a new opportunity as scavengers of ROS and absorbents of PAHs in some harmful gases.

Optimization of Liner Operations and Fuel Selection considering Emission Control Areas.

The continuous expansion of shipping trade has brought about increasingly serious marine pollution problems. In the context of emission reduction in the global shipping industry, this paper focuses on the operation optimization of container ships inside and outside the emission control area (ECA). From the dual perspectives of shipowners and the general public, models in the annual operating cycle are established to study the economic and environmental benefit differences between traditional fuels, i.e., heavy fuel oil (HFO) and low-sulfur fuel oil (LSFO), and alternative fuels, i.e., liquefied natural gas (LNG) and methanol. Sensitivity analysis was carried out for the proportion of ECA and ship speed. The results show that, in the current situation of high natural gas prices, the use of HFO after the installation of scrubbers is still the most cost-effective option in the short term, followed by the use of LSFO and methanol. LNG is no longer an attractive option, while LSFO and methanol are the best options for both cost and the environment. With the tightening of ECA regulations, methanol will become the optimal choice when the ECA ratio is higher than 47%. By reducing the speed of the ship, the pollutant emission can be effectively reduced, but it will also lead to an overall decrease in profits. Considering the future "zero carbon" emission targets, slow streaming is only suitable as a short-term response measure, while switching to green power energy is a choice that is more in line with the long-term development strategy.

A High-Density EEG Study Investigating the Neural Correlates of Continuity Editing Theory in VR Films.

This paper presents a cognitive psychology experiment to explore the differences between 2D and virtual reality (VR) film editing techniques. We recruited sixteen volunteers to view a range of different display modes and edit types of experimental material. An electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded simultaneously while the participants watched. Subjective results showed that the VR mode reflects higher load scores, particularly in the effort dimension. Different editing types have no effect on subjective immersion scores. The VR mode elicited stronger EEG energy, with differences concentrated in the occipital, parietal, and central regions. On the basis of this, visual evoked potential (VEP) analyses were conducted, and the results indicated that VR mode triggered greater spatial attention, while editing in 2D mode induced stronger semantic updating and active understanding. Furthermore, we found that while the effect of different edit types in both display modes is similar, cross-axis editing triggered greater cognitive violations than continuity editing, which could serve as scientific theoretical support for the development of future VR film editing techniques.

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen impairs the nuclear import of influenza A virus PB2 and suppresses virus replication.

The genome of Influenza A virus (IAV) transcribes and replicates in the nucleus of cells and the viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complex plays an important role in viral replication. As a major component of the vRNP complex, the polymerase basic protein 2 (PB2) is translocated to the nucleus via its nuclear localization signals mediated by the importins. Herein, it was identified proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) as an inhibitor of nuclear import of PB2 and subsequent viral replication. Mechanically, PCNA interacted with PB2 and inhibited the nuclear import of PB2. Furthermore, PCNA decreased the binding efficiency of PB2 with importin alpha (importin α) and the K738, K752, and R755 of PB2 were identified as the key sites binding with PCNA and importin α. Furthermore, PCNA was demonstrated to retrain the vRNP assembly and polymerase activity. Taken together, the results demonstrated that PCNA impaired the nuclear import of PB2, vRNP assembly and polymerase activity, which negatively regulated virus replication.

N6-methyladenosine reader protein YTHDC1 regulates influenza A virus NS segment splicing and replication.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification on viral RNAs has a profound impact on infectivity. m6A is also a highly pervasive modification for influenza viral RNAs. However, its role in virus mRNA splicing is largely unknown. Here, we identify the m6A reader protein YTHDC1 as a host factor that associates with influenza A virus NS1 protein and modulates viral mRNA splicing. YTHDC1 levels are enhanced by IAV infection. We demonstrate that YTHDC1 inhibits NS splicing by binding to an NS 3' splicing site and promotes IAV replication and pathogenicity in vitro and in vivo. Our results provide a mechanistic understanding of IAV-host interactions, a potential therapeutic target for blocking influenza virus infection, and a new avenue for the development of attenuated vaccines.

Approved Nanomedicine against Diseases.

Nanomedicine is a branch of medicine using nanotechnology to prevent and treat diseases. Nanotechnology represents one of the most effective approaches in elevating a drug's treatment efficacy and reducing toxicity by improving drug solubility, altering biodistribution, and controlling the release. The development of nanotechnology and materials has brought a profound revolution to medicine, significantly affecting the treatment of various major diseases such as cancer, injection, and cardiovascular diseases. Nanomedicine has experienced explosive growth in the past few years. Although the clinical transition of nanomedicine is not very satisfactory, traditional drugs still occupy a dominant position in formulation development, but increasingly active drugs have adopted nanoscale forms to limit side effects and improve efficacy. The review summarized the approved nanomedicine, its indications, and the properties of commonly used nanocarriers and nanotechnology.

Sulfur disproportionation realizes an organic-free sulfidogenic process for sustainable treatment of acid mine drainage.

Biological sulfidogenic processes (BSPs) have been considered effective biotechnologies for the treatment of organic-deficit acid mine drainage (AMD) and heavy metal recovery. However, high-rate sulfide production relies on the continuous addition of exogenous organic substrates as electron donors to facilitate dissimilatory sulfate reduction, which substantially increases the operational cost and CO2 emission and also limits the wide application of BSPs in AMD treatment. In this study, we proposed a novel chemoautotrophic elemental sulfur disproportionation (SD) process as an alternative to conventional BSPs for treating AMD, in which sulfur-disproportionating bacteria (SDB) disproportionates sulfur to sulfide and sulfate without organic substrate supplementation. During the 393-day lab-scale test, we observed that the sulfur-disproportionating reactor (SDR) achieved a stable high-rate sulfide production, with a maximal rate of 21.10 mg S/L-h at an organic-substrate-free condition. This high rate of sulfide production suggested that the SD process could provide sufficient sulfide to precipitate metal ions from AMD. Thermodynamics analysis and batch tests further revealed that alkalinity rather than sulfate was the critical factor influencing the SD process, suggesting that the abundant sulfate present in AMD would not inhibit the SD process. The critical condition of SD in the SDR was therefore determined. Microbial community analysis showed that Dissulfurimicrobium sp. was the dominant SDB during the long-term operation regardless of dynamic sulfate and/or alkalinity concentrations, which provides evidence that SDB can be employed for sustainable and high-rate sulfide production for engineering purposes. A multi-stage AMD treatment system equipped with a SDR removed over 99% of the influent metals (i.e., Fe, Al, Zn, Cu, Pb) from AMD except for Mn. This study demonstrated that the novel SD process is a green and promising biotechnology for the sustainable treatment of organic-deficient metal-laden wastewater, such as AMD.

Evaluation of the Mucosal Immunity Effect of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Subunit Vaccine E2Fc and E2Ft.

Classified as a class B infectious disease by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), bovine viral diarrhea/mucosal disease is an acute, highly contagious disease caused by the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Sporadic endemics of BVDV often lead to huge economic losses to the dairy and beef industries. To shed light on the prevention and control of BVDV, we developed two novel subunit vaccines by expressing bovine viral diarrhea virus E2 fusion recombinant proteins (E2Fc and E2Ft) through suspended HEK293 cells. We also evaluated the immune effects of the vaccines. The results showed that both subunit vaccines induced an intense mucosal immune response in calves. Mechanistically, E2Fc bonded to the Fc γ receptor (FcγRI) on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and promoted IgA secretion, leading to a stronger T-cell immune response (Th1 type). The neutralizing antibody titer stimulated by the mucosal-immunized E2Fc subunit vaccine reached 1:64, which was higher than that of the E2Ft subunit vaccine and that of the intramuscular inactivated vaccine. The two novel subunit vaccines for mucosal immunity developed in this study, E2Fc and E2Ft, can be further used as new strategies to control BVDV by enhancing cellular and humoral immunity.